The milestones of biorhythmology
From the first theoretical formulations to the international spread of biorhythms.
Wilhelm Fliess
Publishes a work dedicated to biological periodicity, with reference to the cycles of 23 and 28 days.
Hermann Swoboda
Publishes Die Perioden des menschlichen Organismus, dedicated to the periodicity of psychological and biological phenomena.
The 33-day cycle
Historical reconstructions of biorhythmology attribute to Alfred Teltscher the studies on the 33-day intellectual cycle.
Hans Schwing
Presents at the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology in Zurich a thesis on biorhythms and their possible technical applications.
George S. Thommen
Publishes Is This Your Day?, contributing to the spread of the classical theory of biorhythms in the United States.
Alberto G. Staffa
Publishes El Biorritmo en el Matrimonio, dedicated to the application of biorhythmic calculations to the couple and to procreation.
Bernard Gittelson
Publishes Biorhythm: A Personal Science, one of the representative volumes of the popular dissemination of biorhythms in the 1970s.
IBRA and electronic calculators
The International Biorhythm Research Association is founded in Atlanta. In the same period, electronic calculators dedicated to biorhythms become established, including Kosmos 1.
1. Founders and early researchers of biological periodicity
The pioneers of biological periodicity
Wilhelm Fliess
German physician, specialist in otorhinolaryngology and a fundamental figure in the modern rediscovery of the biorhythmic cycles of 23 and 28 days. Through his observations on biological recurrences and his studies on periodicity, he contributed to the development of the classical theory of vital rhythms.
Die Beziehungen zwischen Nase und weiblichen Geschlechtsorganen. Franz Deuticke, 1897.
Der Ablauf des Lebens: Grundlegung zur exakten Biologie. Franz Deuticke, 1906.
Hermann Swoboda
Psychologist and lecturer at the University of Vienna, he was one of the main figures in the development of the classical theory of biorhythms. He studied the periodicity of psychological and behavioral phenomena, recording temporal recurrences in human life. His research, contemporary with that of Wilhelm Fliess, contributed to the formulation of the theories on the cycles of 23 and 28 days.
Die Perioden des menschlichen Organismus in ihrer psychologischen und biologischen Bedeutung. Franz Deuticke, 1904.
Das Siebenjahr: Untersuchungen über die zeitliche Gesetzmäßigkeit des Menschenlebens. Band I: Vererbung. Orion-Verlag, 1917.
Alfred Teltscher
A figure traditionally associated, in the biorhythmological literature, with the studies on the 33-day intellectual cycle. According to later reconstructions, he taught at a technical institute in Innsbruck and observed periodic recurrences in the students’ performance during the 1920s. His contribution is frequently cited in the history of the theory of the three biorhythmic cycles. However, the absence of verifiable original documentation does not allow the discovery of the 33-day cycle to be attributed to him with certainty.
Vinardi, Livio J. Ritmi Vitali, Chapter II, pp. 48–49.
Thommen, George S. Biorhythm: Is This Your Day?, 1973, for the discussion of the indirect testimonies on Teltscher.
Nikolai Pärna
Estonian physician and physiologist, among the precursors of the studies on biological periodicity. Active in the academic environment of Saint Petersburg, he studied temporal recurrences in psychic life, human activity and creativity, through prolonged observations and biographical analyses. His research contributed to the history of the studies on psychophysiological rhythms, while remaining distinct from the later classical theory of biorhythms of 23, 28 and 33 days.
Ritm, žiznʹ i tvorčestvo (Rhythm, Life and Creativity). Leningrad–Moscow: Petrograd, 1925 (posthumous edition).
2. Theoretical development of biorhythmology
Elaboration of models, mathematical interpretation and systematization of the theory
Eugenio Soriani
A fundamental figure in the theoretical development of biorhythmology, he explored the qualitative aspects of vital rhythms, introducing the study of energy platforms and individual biorhythmic potentials. His research helped broaden the interpretation of the three fundamental cycles beyond mere quantitative calculation, becoming a central reference for the later elaborations of Livio J. Vinardi.
I potenziali bioritmici: il ternario emociclico e l’analisi della costituzione bioritmica personale. Arka, 1999 (posthumous ed.).
Livio J. Vinardi
Physicist, engineer, author and founder of Biopsychoenergetics, he was a reference figure in the contemporary development of biorhythmology. Through decades of studies and teaching activity, he elaborated an integrated treatment of vital rhythms, exploring the cycles of 23, 28 and 33 days, biorhythmic potentials, interpersonal compatibilities and numerous theoretical and practical applications. A founding member and vice president of the International Biorhythm Research Association (IBRA), he contributed to the international spread of biorhythmology. His work also includes the original elaboration of Arcane Biorhythmology. The treatise Ritmi Vitali is the main theoretical and methodological reference of the biorhythmic model adopted by byourit.
Ritmos Vitales: Biorritmología Integrada del Tercer Milenio. Tratado Didáctico-Crítico-Comparativo. Original work, 2008.
Ritmi Vitali: Bioritmologia Integrata del Terzo Millennio. Youcanprint, 2014; second edition, 2023.
Alfred Judt
German engineer associated with the city of Bremen, mentioned in the biorhythmological literature as early as 1930. Livio J. Vinardi considers him one of the main rediscoverers of the 33-day intellectual cycle and attributes to him a fundamental contribution to the biomathematical development of the three basic vital rhythms. According to Vinardi’s reconstruction, Judt took up and built on the work of Wilhelm Fliess, elaborating, between the 1920s and 1930s, criteria of adjustment and compensation applied to the cycles of 23, 28 and 33 days. He is credited with compiling the tables of the Relative Mean Cyclical Impulses (ICMR), which describe the daily variations of the three cycles, as well as Table VIII-1 of permanent compatibilities, used to determine the percentages of biorhythmic compatibility between two people. His name also appears in a 1981 technical review held by NASA, in connection with the development of methods for calculating and graphically representing biorhythms.
Krumm-Heller, Arnold. Biorritmo. Berlin-Heiligensee, 1930, p. 3 (reference reported by Mariano Villalba).
Vinardi, Livio J. Ritmi Vitali, Chapter II, pp. 49 and 52; Chapter VI, pp. 179–183; Chapter VIII, pp. 261–263.
Effects of Circadian Rhythm Phase Alteration on Physiological and Psychological Variables: Implications to Pilot Performance. NASA Technical Reports Server, 1981.
Heinrich Kündig and Hans Künzi
Swiss scholars cited in the biorhythmological literature as collaborators of Hans Früh in the research carried out in Zurich in the mid-twentieth century on the astronomical-mathematical relationships between the cycles of 23 and 28 days. Their names are associated in particular with a 1954 study dedicated to the correspondences between the main periodic values of biorhythmology and the length of the astronomical year. In the tradition of vital rhythms they are remembered as continuers of the line of research started by Wilhelm Fliess, with particular attention to the mathematical and geometric aspects of the fundamental cycles.
3. Applied studies and empirical observations
Historical investigations into biological cycles and their possible applications
Hans Früh
Swiss scholar, among the reference figures of applied biorhythmology in the twentieth century. According to Livio J. Vinardi, he founded the Biorhythm Study Center of Basel and explored the application of vital cycles to surgery, with particular attention to the choice of the most favorable moments for operations. He also contributed to the development of biorhythmic calculation tools and, in 1954, took part with Heinrich Kündig and Hans Künzi in a study on the astronomical-mathematical relationships between the cycles of 23 and 28 days.
Früh, Hans. Von der Perioden- zur Biorhythmenlehre: Von der Herrschaft der biologischen Perioden zur Autonomie des Menschen. — Publisher: Lebensweiser-Verlag - Zürich / Gettenbach, 1942.
Rexford B. Hersey
American researcher in the field of industrial psychology and worker behavior, associated with the Wharton Industrial Research Department of the University of Pennsylvania. In his studies on the psychological and physiological conditions of workers he observed recurring oscillations of emotional tone, energy and morale over time, identifying periodicities in individual behavior. His research contributed to the knowledge of cyclical variations in human activity and to the subsequent discussion on biological and psychological rhythms.
Hersey, Rexford B. Workers’ Emotions in Shop and Home: A Study of Individual Workers from the Psychological and Physiological Standpoint. University of Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia, 1932.
Hans Schwing
Swiss civil engineer and researcher, associated with the studies on biological periodicity and on the relationship between biorhythmic cycles and accident statistics. In the 1930s he carried out in Zurich a study based on hundreds of cases recorded in insurance archives, finding a higher frequency of accidents at the so-called “critical days” of the biorhythmic cycles of 23 and 28 days. His analyses contributed to the spread of the hypothesis of greater instability of performance at the transition points of vital rhythms, a theme later taken up by several authors of biorhythmology. In 1939 he presented a doctoral thesis dedicated to biorhythms and their technical applications at the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology in Zurich.
Über Biorhythmen und deren technische Anwendung. Gebr. Leemann & Co., Zurich, 1939.
F. Wehrli
Swiss physician active in Locarno, cited in the biorhythmological literature for the application of vital cycles in clinical practice and in the assessment of the most favorable moments for surgical operations. In the work carried out at his own clinic, he argued for the usefulness of considering patients’ biorhythmic situation when scheduling treatments and, where possible, when choosing the dates of surgical operations and transfusions. His contribution belongs to the tradition of the medical applications of biorhythmology developed over the course of the twentieth century.
4. International spread of the theory of biorhythms
Authors, publications and popularizing tools that contributed to the spread of biorhythmology
Bernard Gittelson
American publicist and essayist, also active as a public relations consultant and editorial promoter. In the 1970s he played a central role in the popularization of biorhythms in the United States, helping to bring them from specialist debate to mass dissemination through books, services and products dedicated to the calculation and graphic representation of biorhythmic cycles. His best-known book, Biorhythm: A Personal Science (1975), enjoyed wide editorial circulation and helped consolidate among the general public the knowledge of the three fundamental cycles — physical, emotional and intellectual — that can be calculated from the date of birth. Through his publications and the related commercial activities, including the company Biorhythm Computers Inc., Gittelson was among the main protagonists of the cultural and commercial diffusion of biorhythmology in the United States during the 1970s. In 1977 he also took part in the founding of the International Biorhythm Research Association (IBRA) in Atlanta, taking a particular interest in the possible applications of biorhythms in industrial safety.
Gittelson, Bernard. Biorhythm: A Personal Science. Arco Publishing Company, New York, 1975.
Gittelson, Bernard. Biorhythm Sports Forecasting. Arco Publishing Company, New York, 1977.
Gittelson, Bernard. The Gittelson Biorhythm Code Book: Charts and Compatibility Guides for 1978–1982. Arco Publishing Company, New York, 1978.
Walter A. Appel
German author and popularizer of biorhythms, known for a series of publications dedicated to the practical application of vital cycles in daily life, personal relationships and professional activity. Active in the dissemination of biorhythmology since the 1970s, he took part in 1977 in the founding of the International Biorhythm Research Association (IBRA) in Atlanta, also contributing to the historical research on the origins of the theory of vital rhythms. Through the books published between the 1970s and 1990s he explored the calculation and interpretation of biorhythms, paying particular attention to their applications in self-knowledge, in the compatibility between individuals and in everyday choices. His works belong to the phase of international diffusion of popularizing and applied biorhythmology.
Appel, Walter A. Biorhythmik: Die biologische Erfolgsuhr. Moderne Verlagsgesellschaft (mvg), Munich, 1975.
Appel, Walter A. Der Biorhythmus verrät: Wer paßt zu wem und warum?. mvg-Verlag, Landsberg am Lech, 1988.
Appel, Walter A. Handbuch Biorhythmus: Der Schlüssel für bessere Gesundheit, mehr Erfolg und eine glückliche Partnerschaft. Goldmann, Munich, 1991.
Appel, Walter A. Erfolgsgeheimnis Biorhythmus: Die Zeit arbeitet für Sie. Midena Verlag, Augsburg, 1998.
Kichinosuke Tatai
Japanese physician, university professor and author, known for spreading the theory of biorhythms in the Asian context in the second half of the twentieth century. Through books and popularizing activities he helped make the biorhythmic cycles of 23, 28 and 33 days popular, linking them to the themes of health, personal well-being and accident prevention.
A professor at the Tokyo University of Agriculture, in 1977 he was invited to represent Japan at the first international congress of the International Biorhythm Research Association (IBRA). His publications contributed to the knowledge and spread of the practical applications of biorhythmology, with particular attention to daily life and health.
Tatai, Kichinosuke. Biorhythm for Health Design. Japan Publications, 1977.
Tatai, Kichinosuke. I bioritmi. Guida alla salute e al successo. Edizioni Mediterranee, Rome, 1977
Ger Zantinge
Dutch author of popularizing texts on biorhythms. He is known above all for the volume Het goede moment: Bioritmiek (1976), dedicated to the practical explanation of the three biorhythmic cycles of 23, 28 and 33 days and their applications in daily life, with particular attention to health, personal well-being and human activities. The work was later translated and published in Italian as well, with the title Bioritmi: il momento giusto.
Zantinge, Ger. Het goede moment: Bioritmiek: drie bioritmen bepalen onze ups en downs. Ankh-Hermes, Deventer, 1976.
Zantinge, Ger. Bioritmi: il momento giusto. Translated by Nadine Pennington de Jongh. Hermes Edizioni, Rome, 1988.
Daniel Cohen
Author and popularizer cited in the biorhythmological literature for the volume Biorhythms in Your Life (1976), also published in Spanish with the title Los biorritmos en su vida. The work, short and introductory in character, presents in a simple and concise way the principles of the three biorhythmic cycles of 23, 28 and 33 days, the methods of calculation and some applications in daily life. With essential illustrations and accessible explanations, the book is aimed mainly at the non-specialist reader and belongs to the popularizing phase of biorhythmology during the 1970s and 1980s.
Cohen, Daniel. Biorhythms in Your Life. Fawcett Publications, Greenwich, Connecticut, 1976.
Cohen, Daniel. Los biorritmos en su vida. Ediciones Lidiun, Buenos Aires, 1978 (Spanish-language edition).
Peter A. West
Author cited in the biorhythmological literature for the volume Biorhythms: Your Daily Guide to Achieving Peak Potential, published by Thorsons in the 1980s and intended for the practical popularization of the biorhythmic cycles. The work presents a simple and accessible explanation of the theory of biorhythms, of the three fundamental cycles of 23, 28 and 33 days and of the methods for calculating and interpreting personal cycles and their relationships. Through this volume and later introductory guides, West contributed to the spread of the practical applications of biorhythmology, addressing mainly the beginner reader.
West, Peter A. Biorhythms. Thorsons, 1980.
West, Peter A. Biorhythms: Your Daily Guide to Achieving Peak Potential. Thorsons, 1984.
West, Peter A. Biorhythms: A Step-by-Step Guide. In a Nutshell series, Element Books, 1999.
Helene Kinauer Saltarini
Author of Austrian origin linked to the twentieth-century European biorhythmological tradition. Her name is associated with the volume Bioritmo (1977), in which she gives particular prominence to the cycles of 23 and 28 days, devoting more limited attention to the 33-day intellectual cycle. Her contribution concerns above all the interpretation of vital rhythms in relation to gestation and biological periodicities, with particular attention to the biorhythmic hypotheses on the determination of the sex of the unborn child. The work also presents comparative examples relating to the gestation times of different animal species, including horse, cat, dog and rabbit. Through this work, Kinauer Saltarini contributed to the popularization of applied biorhythmology, addressing themes linked to vital cycles, health and procreation.
Kinauer Saltarini, Helene. Bioritmo. SIAD Edizioni, Milan, 1977.
5. Latin American biorhythmological literature
Studies and applications of biorhythms in the couple, in relationships and in procreation
Alberto G. Staffa
Argentine author active in biorhythmology applied to marriage and the couple. His work El Biorritmo en el Matrimonio (1968) develops the biorhythmic analysis of marital relationships through the use of the ICMR (Relative Mean Cyclical Impulses) and of tables extended up to the completion of the biorhythmic recurrence period. The approach follows directly the line of Eugenio Soriani, indicated as Master, and organizes about fifteen case studies into three groups — balanced, semi-balanced and unbalanced — with related practical results of calculation and verification. The work thus applies tools of comparative biorhythmic analysis to the study of the partners’ configurations and of marital relationships, also addressing hypotheses relating to procreation and to the determination of the sex of the unborn child.
Staffa, Alberto G. El Biorritmo en el Matrimonio. Ediciones Alsta, Tres Arroyos, Buenos Aires, Argentina, 1968.
Juan Antonio Vélez Rojas
Engineer and author linked to the Latin American biorhythmological literature. His works are dedicated to the practical application of the biorhythmic cycles and include calculation tables of the three fundamental rhythms of 23, 28 and 33 days, with the related values of the ICMR (Relative Mean Cyclical Impulses). His work addresses the possible relationships between vital rhythms, gestation and birth planning, paying particular attention to the theme of the preconceptional determination of the sex of the unborn child according to biorhythmic models. His approach also takes up the studies of Eugenio Soriani, with whom he shared research interests, contributing to the spread of applied biorhythmology in the Latin American sphere.
Vélez Rojas, J. A. Tablas biorrítmicas: Control de natalidad y determinación preconcepcional del sexo. Editorial Kier, Buenos Aires, 1977.
Vélez Rojas, J. A. Los Biorritmos y su Aplicación. Ediciones Universo - Lima, 1973.
Román J. Cano
Spanish-language author and popularizer, associated with the spread of biorhythmology in the second half of the twentieth century. His works deal with the interpretation and practical application of biorhythms in daily life, with particular attention to identifying the periods considered favorable or unfavorable in personal activities, health and relationships. His name is linked above all to the volume Biorritmos: El secreto de nuestros mejores días (1980), published in Spain by Ediciones Martínez Roca. The work presents the three fundamental cycles of 23, 28 and 33 days, illustrating their calculation and interpretation through accessible explanations, biorhythmic tables and practical tools, including a circular biocalculator for determining personal cycles. Cano also addressed some applied interpretations of vital rhythms relating to compatibility between people and to biorhythmic hypotheses on conception. In the context of the literature on biorhythms, he is among the authors who contributed to the editorial and popularizing diffusion of the theory of vital cycles between the 1970s and 1980s.
Cano, Román J. Biorritmos: El secreto de nuestros mejores días. Ediciones Martínez Roca, Fontana Práctica series, Barcelona, 1980.
Cano, Román J. Biorritmos: El secreto de nuestros mejores días. Ediciones Martínez Roca, Barcelona, 1989 (updated edition with tables up to the year 2000).
6. Organizational and institutional diffusion
International associations, organizational initiatives and technological development of biorhythmology
George S. Thommen
Author and popularizer of biorhythms, of Swiss origin and active in the United States, considered one of the figures who contributed most to the international spread of the theory of vital cycles in the twentieth century. He was known above all for his editorial and popularizing activity linked to biorhythmology and for the role he played in international initiatives dedicated to its study and promotion. In 1977 he took part in the founding of the International Biorhythm Research Association (IBRA) in Atlanta (Georgia, USA), taking on the position of Chairman. The association promoted studies, meetings and activities for the diffusion of the theory of biorhythms. In his works Thommen analyzed the distribution of the so-called critical days within the biorhythmic cycles and proposed several applied interpretations of vital rhythms. He also addressed hypotheses relating to the possible relationship between the biorhythmic cycles and the determination of the sex of the unborn child at the moment of conception. His contributions belong to the sphere of popularizing and applied biorhythmology.
Thommen, George S. Is This Your Day? How Biorhythm Helps You Determine Your Life Cycles. Crown Publishers, New York, 1964.
Thommen, George S. La ciencia del biorritmo: ¿Es éste su día?. Editorial Diana, Mexico City, 1977 (Spanish edition).
Thommen, George S. Biorhythms: Is This Your Day? How You Can Chart Your Ups and Downs for Weeks, Months, and Even Years Ahead. Crown Publishers, New York, 1987 (revised and updated edition).
David N. Smith
American entrepreneur and promoter of the International Biorhythm Research Association (IBRA), founded in Atlanta on July 7, 1977. He was active in the applied diffusion of biorhythmology also through the companies International Horizons and Kosmos International, engaged in the production and marketing of electronic calculators dedicated to biorhythmic cycles. Among the devices presented were Kosmos I, Kosmos Bio-Clock, Kosmos II and Kosmos Mini-Bio, designed to facilitate the calculation of the three fundamental cycles — physical, emotional and intellectual — and of biorhythmic compatibilities between people. Astro-Bio, a calculator intended instead for interpersonal astrological compatibilities, also belonged to the same commercial initiative. His contribution belongs to the phase of technological and commercial diffusion of biorhythmology between the 1970s and the early 1980s, when electronic tools began to make accessible to the general public calculations previously performed by means of manual tables and charts.
7. Related authors and cultural context
Interdisciplinary figures and contributions linked to the history of biological rhythms
Walter Jung
Author of a popularizing text on biological rhythms published in the 1990s. His book Biorritmos presents in introductory form the general principles of biological periodicity, examining natural and physiological phenomena such as the heartbeat, sleep cycles and the seasonal variations observable in living organisms. The work is conceived as an accessible guide for the public interested in chronobiology and in understanding the natural rhythms that characterize human activity and other biological systems.
Jung, Walter. Biorritmos. Editors, 1995.
Arnold Krumm-Heller
German physician and author active between the end of the nineteenth and the first half of the twentieth century. He studied natural sciences and medicine in Europe and in Mexico and carried out research, teaching and popularizing activity in several countries, publishing numerous works of a medical, philosophical and esoteric nature. In the biorhythmological literature his name appears among the authors who contributed to the spread of themes linked to biological periodicity and vital rhythms. In the volume Biorritmo (1930) he addressed the three fundamental cycles of 23, 28 and 33 days, illustrating their interpretation and methods of calculation by means of examples and tables. His output also includes works dedicated to chirology and to interpretive models of natural vibrations, an expression of an intellectual path in which the study of biological phenomena was intertwined with philosophical and esoteric traditions. His contribution to biorhythmology lies above all in the sphere of the popularization and interpretation of vital cycles, rather than in the development of an autonomous theoretical system.
Krumm-Heller, Arnold. Biorritmo. Bücher-Druckerei G.m.b.H., Berlin-Heiligensee, 1930.
Krumm-Heller, Arnold. Biorritmo. Editorial Kier, Buenos Aires, later editions, including the eighth in 1981.
Associations, study centers and calculators
The organizations, study initiatives and technological tools that accompanied the spread of biorhythmology in the twentieth century.
IBRA
Founded on July 7, 1977, the IBRA was created with the aim of promoting the study and international diffusion of biorhythmology through conferences, meetings and practical applications of vital cycles. George S. Thommen was its first Chairman, while Livio J. Vinardi served as vice president and director of the Department of Education.
IBUNA
In his treatise Ritmi Vitali, Livio J. Vinardi reports the founding of the IBUNA in 1993, as a training initiative dedicated to biopsychoenergetics and biorhythmology. The project provided for two areas of teaching, Healing and Biorhythm, and was part of the process of systematization and international diffusion of his research.
Biorhythm Study Center of Basel
Center associated with the figure of the Swiss researcher Hans Früh, cited in the twentieth-century biorhythmological literature for his studies on vital cycles. In Vinardi’s treatise, Früh is indicated as the founder of the Basel center and of a laboratory in Zurich. The activities described concern above all the proposed applications of biorhythmology in the medical and surgical field.
The season of biorhythmic calculators
The popular diffusion of biorhythmology was accompanied by the production of electronic tools for calculating personal cycles and compatibilities between people. The companies International Horizons and Kosmos International, linked to the American entrepreneur David N. Smith, contributed to the marketing of devices such as Kosmos I, Kosmos Bio-Clock, Kosmos II and Kosmos Mini-Bio. Astro-Bio, intended instead for astrological compatibilities, belonged to the same product line. At the same time, authors and popularizers such as Bernard Gittelson contributed to the diffusion of charts and tools for the practical interpretation of biorhythms.